Is Malaysia’s Pension Scheme Sufficient to Secure the Quality of
Life for the Elderly?
Isahaque Ali, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Malaysia
Azlinda
Azman, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Zulkarnain
A. Hatta, Lincoln University College, Malaysia
M. Rezaul
Islam, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
A H M
Belayeth Hussain, Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Malaysia
1
Introduction
The present pension system has created
concerns among employers, academics, social development scholar and
policymakers in Malaysia and other countries (Ju, Han, Lee, Lee, Choi, Hyun,
& Park, 2017). In 2017, the population in Malaysia was estimated at 32
million. The portion of that population aged 0-14 years in 2017 dropped to
24.1% from 24.5% in 2016 and the number has increased among those aged 15-64
years from 69.5% in 2016 to 69.7% in 2017 (Department of Statistics Malaysia,
2017). Currently, the elderly population constitute 8.2% (2.4 million) of the
total population, and this figure is expected to increase to 15% by the year
2030 (Yahaya, Abdullah, Momtaz, & Hamid, 2010; Wan-Ibrahim & Zainab,
2014; Onunkwor et al., 2016). This indicates that the elderly population will
present a significant challenge for Malaysia (Tolos, 2012).
The current pension provision and its
ability to provide income and financial sustainability for a significant number
of the elderly in Malaysia is an issue of concern (Onunkwor, Al-Dubai, George,
Arokiasamy, Yadav, Barua, & Shuaibu, 2016). Malaysia has several social
protection systems including the public pension scheme offered only to civil
servants, the Employees Provident Fund (EPF) for the private sector, Social Security
Organisation (SOCSO) and the Armed Forces Superannuation Fund (Tolos, 2012). It
is predicted that the pension of civil servants, EPF and old age assistance
will not be sufficient to fulfil the additional demands of the elderly. The
issue is exacerbated by longer life expectancy and the increasing cost of
securing a comfortable living in Malaysia (Barr & Diamond, 2009; Yusuf,
2012; Chen, Hicks, & While, 2014; Mohd, Mansor, Awang, & Ahmad, 2015;
Awang & Ahmad, 2015; Onunkwor et al., 2016). It is assumed that the
existing pension system covers only a small portion (around 11%) of the total
elderly population in Malaysia (Park & Estrada, 2012; Tey, Siraj,
Kamaruzzaman, Chin, Tan, Sinnappan, & Müller, 2016). This trend will
further increase the risk of poverty (Doling & Omar, 2012) among the
elderly.
Despite efforts by the Malaysian
government to achieve zero poverty, the issue of poverty among the elderly is a
relatively new concern. Additionally, the majority of Malaysians do not have
social pension (also known as a non-contributory pension) and social protection
in old age (Hatta & Ali, 2013; Ong & Hamid, 2010; Mohd et al., 2015).
In Malaysia, the compulsory retirement age is 60 years. However, many older
adults continue working (paid work, contract job) (Ng & Hamid, 2013) after
retirement to supplement their income (Masud et al., 2006b). This trend will
create tensions in the job market that would affect the young generations
seeking to enter the job market adversely.
Another challenge faced by older Malaysians
is the inadequacy of their savings upon retirement. Generally, elderly
Malaysians have limited savings, especially the 40% of households with a very
low average monthly household income of RM 1,440 (US$ 351.21) (Samad &
Mansor, 2013). In Malaysia, 22.7% of the households headed by the elderly (aged
65 years and over) had the highest incidence of poverty (Hatta & Ali, 2013;
Sharifah et al., 2010). Therefore, an effective and vigorous public and private
pension system for the “target population” is an important tool for adequate
old-age income (Park & Estrada, 2012).
In the global context, the social pension
system contributes significantly to the financial security of the pensioners
and has a positive impact on social development. However, the pension in developing
countries is inadequate for large numbers of pensioners to secure them against
poverty (Barrientos, 2009). The current global economic downturn has affected
the economies of many developing countries like Malaysia and has affected the
pension system. For example, the government of Malaysia reduced the
contribution rates for retirement savings for employees in 2009 to stimulate
the demand for consumption and labour (Yusuf, 2012). A large number of retirees
are at the risk of poverty and experienced a reduction in income due to limited
income sources and dependents (Vaghefi, Kari, & Talib, 2016; Tolos, 2012).
Therefore, the government of Malaysia must focus attention to revising the
public pension system in order to improve the effectiveness of the pension and
maintain the QOL of pensioners (Yusuf, 2012). Hence, this study seeks to
examine whether the public pension system provides sufficient value to ensure a
standard QOL in later life in Malaysia.
2
Literature Review: Concepts, Theories and
Research
2.1 Quality of life
(QOL) of the elderly
The World Health Organisation (WHO)
defined QOL as individuals’ perception of their position in life in the context
of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their
goals, expectations, standards and concerns (The WHOQOL Group, 1998). The
WHOQOL Group emphasises “the importance to know how satisfied or bothered
people are by important aspects of their life, and this interpretation will be
a highly individual matter” (Skevington et al., 2004, p. 299). The QOL
construct has a complex composition, so it is perhaps not surprising that there
is neither an agreed definition nor a standard form of measurement (Cummins,
1997; Marans, 2015). On the other hand, quantifying QOL faces numerous debates,
for example: What aspects should be measured and what is the relative weight of
different aspects? (Veenhoven, 2007).The WHOQOL-BREF is currently scored in
four domains: physical health, psychological, social relation and environment
(Skevington et al., 2004). Nevertheless, the QOL includes good physical
functioning, relationships with others, psychological well-being, health, and
social activity as critical aspects of well-being for the elderly (Alavi et
al., 2011).
The QOL comprises eight domains including
interpersonal relation, material well-being, social inclusion, physical
well-being, personal development, emotional well-being, self-determination and
rights (Schalock, 2004). It is a vast concept that covers a person’s
psychological state, physical health, social relationships, level of
independence and relationships with salient features of his or her atmosphere
(Bodur & Cingil, 2009). Employment, housing, income, social security,
marital status, education, and other living and environmental circumstances
affected the QOL (Smith, Sim, Scharf, & Phillipson, 2004). Many
organisations and countries have defined QOL differently, resulting in no
agreed definition or standard measurement. These attempts have used different
characteristics to measure QOL (Gou, Xie, Lu, & Khoshbakh, 2018). For
example, Zhao, Heath and Forgue (2005) measured the QOL by income, good health;
healthcare facilities, housing, psychological variables such as happiness and
satisfaction with life and work.
This study used the QOL scale developed by
Zhao, Heath and Forgue (2005) and the QOL defined by the WHO, which is
consistent with Western society. In Asia, the QOL Index was developed by the
Faculty of Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. This index
covers a wide range of life domains, which consists of 23 indicators that are
grouped into five sub-indices: Health, Social, Culture and Leisure, Economic
and Environmental (Chan, Andy Kwan, & Daniel Shek, 2005). The indicators
are selected according to the coverage, measurability, representativeness, and
importance to the QOL in Hong Kong. A higher score indicates better QOL (Gou et
al., 2018).
In Malaysia, QOL was defined as the
progress achieved when a society shifts from an unfortunate state of life to an
improved condition. This progress is not merely referring to economic growth
but also social, cultural, political, environmental as well as psychological
development (Bakar, Osman, Bachok, & Ibrahim, 2016). The Malaysian Quality
of Life (MQOL) (1999) stated that a QOL comprises the personal achievements, a
healthy lifestyle, access and freedom to pursue knowledge, and a standard of
living, “which surpasses the fulfilment of basic needs of individuals and their
psychological needs, to achieve a level of social well-being compatible with
the nation’s aspirations” (Harith & Noon, 2018, p. 4). There are 38
indicators representing ten components of QOL in Malaysia QOL Index (MQLI) 1999
(Bakar et al., 2016). The components are income and distribution, working life,
transport and communications, health, education, housing, environment, family
life, social participation and public safety (Bakar et al., 2016). However, the
appropriateness and consistency of the indicators and the components of MQLI
are questionable, and due to data constraint, the measure of MQLI at the state
level is not fully applicable (Bakar et al., 2016, p.133). Measuring QOL is
essential to understand people’s overall satisfaction with their existence. “It
involves measurement of quantified indicators and ‘materialistic’ aspects such
as income, expenses, assets and the ownership of goods and also
‘nonmaterialistic’ aspects such as health, social inclusion, education and
others” (Idris et al., 2016, p.2).
2.2 Pension scheme in
Malaysia
In general, the pension scheme is an
arrangement by which an employer and, usually an employee, pay into a fund that
is invested in providing the employee with a pension on retirement. The Public
Service Pension Scheme established under the Government Pension Ordinance of
1951 (revised Pension Act, 1980) provides pensions to civil servants. A
permanent government officer is eligible for a non-contributory government
pension that s/he is confirmed and has completed no less than three years of
recognised service. The scheme covers retirement benefits for officials in the
federal, state and local public service; employees of state enterprises, Judges
and members of Parliament. However, only pensionable officials qualify for
benefits under the scheme, while temporary and part-time officials were
excluded. The maximum monthly retirement pension available under the scheme is
50% of one’s final salary. Pensions for the federal civil servants are paid out
of the federal government general revenue. State enterprises, statutory
authorities and local governments contribute 17.5% of the employees’ monthly
salary in respect of their employees; the employees themselves do not
contribute anything (Doraisami, 2005).
The EPF, Malaysia, also provides
employment, injury and invalidity benefits under the Employees’ Social Security
Act 1969, called SOCSO. It consists of two separate schemes; the Employment
Injury Scheme (EIS) which was implemented in 1972, and the Invalidity Pension
Scheme (IPS) introduced in 1974. All employers employing one or more employees
are covered under the Act. The Act, however, applies only to those employees
earning less than RM2,000 (US$487.80) per month. Once an employee is covered,
then cover continues to be valid regardless of income. The main groups exempted
are domestic servants, casual workers, military and police personnel. The
contribution rate for the EIS is approximately 1.25% of wages and is wholly
paid by the employer. For the IPS, the rate of contribution is 1.0% of wages
shared equally between the employer and the employee (Doraisami, 2005).
The QOL depends on income, housing and
institutionalisation, family and community and health status of this elderly in
Malaysia (Ambigga, Ramli, Suthahar, Tauhid, Clearihan, & Browning, 2011).
Moreover, the emphasis on the pension scheme could be justified by fulfilling
the socio-economic well-being, including improving the health status of the
elderly in Malaysia (HelpAge International, 2006; Jamison, 2009). Retirement
earnings strategies must seek to decrease poverty among the elderly by securing
economic well-being in old age (Yusuf, 2012). Otherwise, pension assistances
risk being inadequate to provide these groups with an adequate income to live
their life in old age. The Civil Service Pension Scheme only covers workers in
public sectors, or around 11% of the elderly (Yusuf, 2012; Tey et al., 2016).
The pensioner’s health status and standard of living depend on good financial
conditions (Yusuf, 2012). Adequate pension assistance decreases the mental
anxiety for the elderly and improves their health and QOL (Tey et al., 2016).
3
Methodology
3.1 Research approach and research method
This study adopted a quantitative approach
via a social survey. This approach was used to gather data from a
representative sample that represents the broader population. It deals with
figures and proves relationships between independent and dependent variables
(Sekaran, 2006). It collects and analyses quantitative data to gain a better
understanding of the research problem (Creswell, 2005).
3.2 Sampling and sample size
A list of public pensioners was collected
from the Malaysian Government Pensioners Association Penang. A 95% confidence
level and 7% level of precision was used to calculate sample sizes (Yamane,
1967), and the minimum sample size for this study was 200 public pensioners.
This size of the sample was regarded as representative of the population.
A sample of 200 was drawn from a list of
9,000 public pensioners who are currently receiving pensions from the state of
Penang (Malaysian Government Pensioners Association Penang, 2017). The samples
were selected from members of the Malaysian Government Pensioners Association,
Penang. The list detailed the pensioners’ names and addresses, which helped the
researcher find the respondents and conduct interviews. The respondents were
aged 60 years, or older and random sampling was used for sample size selection,
in which the primary criterion for selection was that the respondents should be
public pensioners.
Table 1 presents the demographic and
socio-economic profile of the respondents. Data showed that 58% of the
pensioners were aged 60-65 years, 25% 66-70 years, 9% 71-75 years, 7% 76-80
years and the remaining 2% 80 years and above. In terms of gender, 73% were
male, and 28% female. Eighty-four percent of the respondents were married, 9%
single, 7% widow and 1% divorced. The highest 60% of the respondents had
secondary school education, 18% diploma, 13% primary, 7% degree and the
remaining 4% had a master’s degree. According to ethnicity, 66% were Malays,
24% Indian and 10% Chinese. This study found that the monthly income (before
retirement) of the 40% of the respondents had incomes between RM1000-3000
(US$241.14-US$731.70), 27% between RM3001-5000(US$731.95-US$1219.51), 27% less
than RM1000 (US$243.90), and the remaining 5% between RM5001-7000 (US$1219.75-
US$1707.31). On the other hand, after retirement, half of the population (50%)
had incomes of RM1000-3000 (US$241.14-US$731.70), 40% less than RM1000
(US$243.90) and the remaining 9% RM3001-5000 (US$731- US$1219.51). The majority
(45.5%) of the elderly received RM1000-3000 (US$241.14-US$731.70), 45% less than
RM1000 (US$243.90), and the remaining 10% between RM 3001-5000
(US$731.95-US$1219.51). In terms of additional income sources, 33% of the
elderly received financial assistance from their adult children, 31% had no
additional income sources. Other additional sources include 19% savings, 8%
paid work, 5% rental (house, land and shop) and 5% business.
Table 1. Percentage distribution of
selected demographic, socio-economic and health status of the study population
|
Variables
|
N (200)
|
Percent (100)
|
Variables
|
N (200)
|
Percent (100)
|
|
Age of the respondents
|
|
|
Monthly income
before retirement (RM)
|
|
|
|
60-65 Years
|
115
|
57.5
|
|
|
|
66-70 Years
|
50
|
25.0
|
Less than 1000
|
53
|
26.5
|
|
71-75 Years
|
18
|
09.0
|
1000-3000
|
80
|
40.0
|
|
76-80 Years
|
13
|
06.5
|
3001-5000
|
54
|
27.0
|
|
More than 80 Years
|
04
|
02.0
|
5001-7000
|
13
|
6.5
|
|
Gender of the respondents
|
|
|
Monthly income
after retirement (RM)
|
|
|
|
Male
|
145
|
72.5
|
Less than 1000
|
79
|
39.5
|
|
Female
|
55
|
27.5
|
1000-3000
|
100
|
50.0
|
|
Marital status
|
|
|
3001-5000
|
21
|
10.5
|
|
Married
|
168
|
84.0
|
Monthly pension
(RM)
|
|
|
|
Single
|
17
|
08.5
|
Less than 1000
|
89
|
44.5
|
|
Divorced
|
02
|
01.0
|
1000-3000
|
91
|
45.5
|
|
Widowed
|
13
|
06.5
|
3001-5000
|
20
|
10.0
|
|
Education qualification
|
|
|
Additional income
sources
|
|
|
|
Primary
|
26
|
13.0
|
Business
|
10
|
5.0
|
|
Secondary
|
119
|
59.5
|
Rent (land, house, shop)
|
09
|
4.5
|
|
Diploma
|
35
|
17.5
|
Contribution from
|
|
|
|
Degree
|
13
|
06.5
|
children
|
66
|
33.0
|
|
Masters
|
07
|
03.5
|
Savings
|
38
|
19.0
|
|
Ethnicity of the respondents
|
|
|
Paid work
|
16
|
8.0
|
|
Malay
|
132
|
66.0
|
No income sources
|
61
|
30.5
|
|
Indian
|
48
|
24.0
|
|
|
|
|
Chinese
|
20
|
10.0
|
|
|
|
|
Profession before retirement
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Managerial
|
37
|
18.5
|
|
|
|
|
Administrative
|
21
|
10.5
|
|
|
|
|
Clerical
|
34
|
17.0
|
|
|
|
|
Teaching
|
31
|
15.5
|
|
|
|
|
Others
|
77
|
38.5
|
|
|
|
3.3 Data collection method(s) and data collection instruments
The quantitative data were collected
through a semi-structured face-to-face questionnaire. This study was conducted
from January 2017 to April 2017. The questions were administered in Malay and
English languages by a trained native speaker of each language. The first part
included questions on demographic and socio-economic variables such as age,
gender, ethnicity, religion, household income, expenditure, housing facilities,
self-rated health status, medical facilities, living cost, home, type of
accommodation, transportation, children`s education, the perception of pensions
scheme and recommendations to improve the QOL among pensioners in Malaysia. In
the second part, to determine the QOL, the study modified the QOL scale
developed by Zhao, Heath and Forgue (2005) and the QOL scale which is
consistent with the WHO QOL Index used in Western countries. To identify the
QOL, nine (9) items were used: Adequate benefit from a pension, satisfied with
present financial condition, the ability for savings money, the ability for
finance on children education, satisfied with current living places, and assets
is enough to manage an emergency. Each item is ranked on a 5-point Likert scale
(totally disagree-1, disagree-2, neutral-3, agree-4 and totally agree-5).
However, for two (2) items (bargaining during shopping to reduce prices and
difficulty facing for spending) reverse scoring was employed due to negative
items (totally agree-1, agree-2, neutral-3, disagree-4 and totally disagree-5).
The study calculated satisfaction with the pension (adequate benefit from
pension+ satisfied with present financial condition+ ability for savings money+
ability for finance on children education+ satisfied with current living places+
assets is enough to meet emergency+ good health status+ bargaining during
shopping to reduce prices+ difficulty facing for spending= satisfaction with
pension). The level of satisfaction for QOL is measured by a score of 33
representing low satisfaction, 34-66 medium satisfaction and 67-100 high
satisfaction. Higher scores indicate higher QOL. The convergent validity and
reliability were satisfactory. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of overall QOL
and most of its dimensions exceeded 0.71. The Cronbach’s a coefficient of the
QOL in this study was 0.776.
3.4 Data analysis
All data were analysed using SPSS (version
24.0). Descriptive statistics were employed to identify participant selected
demographic characteristics, socio-economic characteristics and health status
of the study population. A statistical analysis of custom table was used to get
the mean score of QOL, and Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR) was used to
identify the relationship between the income of pensioners and QOL of the
elderly in Malaysia. The leading advantage of multinomial regression analysis
is the ability to estimate the predictive relationships of the outcome and
independent variables (Szaflarski, Hughe, Szaflarski, Ficker, Cahill, Li, &
Michael, 2003). The MLR analysis was applied since the dependent variable was
categorical. For some indicators, we used grouped data to identify the
intervals. When we used the grouped data for particular variables (for
instance, income), we considered them nominal/categorical variables. As a statistical
rule, analysing multiple categorical variables requires MLR analysis. Hence,
the MLR was used in this study. This MLR was used to identify the judges of
QOL, and P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
3.5 Ethical consideration
Prior data collection, a confirmation
letter was issued by the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM). The letter was submitted to the Honorary Secretary, Malaysian Government
Pensioners Association, Penang to secure their permission and cooperation to
collect preliminary information of pensioners. A presentation was conducted to
brief the secretary before the research was granted approval. A consent letter
for respondents was prepared and submitted before collecting the data.
4
Results
4.1 Living environment,
health and treatment-seeking behaviour of the elderly
In terms of present illness, Table 2 shows
that 25.5% of the elderly experience cardiovascular diseases, 25% diabetes, 24%
high blood pressure with cardiovascular diseases, 17% diabetes with high blood
pressure, 5% eye diseases with visual impairment and the remaining 5% have
mental health and depression. For healthcare, 81% of the beneficiaries received
healthcare from government hospitals, 11% from government clinic/medical centres
and 7% from private hospitals.
Table 2. Living environment and
health status of the elderly in Malaysia
|
Variables
|
N (200)
|
Percent (100)
|
|
Living environment
|
|
|
|
Bungalow
|
15
|
7.5
|
|
Semi- detached
|
14
|
7.0
|
|
Terrace
|
80
|
40.0
|
|
Kampong house (Malay traditional house)
|
43
|
21.5
|
|
Flat/Apartment
|
45
|
22.5
|
|
Condominium
|
03
|
1.5
|
|
Present illness
|
|
|
|
Diabetes with high blood pressure
|
33
|
16.5
|
|
High blood pressure with cardiovascular diseases
|
47
|
23.5
|
|
Diabetes
|
49
|
24.5
|
|
Eye diseases with visual impairment
|
10
|
5.0
|
|
Mental health and depression
|
10
|
5.0
|
|
Cardiovascular diseases
|
51
|
25.5
|
|
Getting healthcare
|
|
|
|
Government hospital
|
161
|
80.5
|
|
Private hospital
|
14
|
7.0
|
|
Government clinic /medical centre
|
21
|
10.5
|
|
Private clinic
|
04
|
2.0
|
4.2 Satisfaction level
of current pension scheme based on gender, marital status, ethnicity and income
Table 3 shows that the mean (1-5) score of satisfaction on gender is
male 3.28 and female 3.71. This indicates that the satisfaction level of
current living place is near equal between male and female pensioners. The mean
score for good health status is male 2.68 and female 3.05, which indicates that
females are healthier than males. An interesting finding is that the mean score
for bargaining during shopping is male 2.25 and female 1.91, highlighting that
females bargain more when shopping. For facing difficulty during spending, the
mean score is male 2.47 and 2.71 female. This indicates that the satisfaction
levels of females are higher than male pensioners in the current pension
systems.
Analyses on the basis of ethnicity shows that the mean score of
adequate benefit from the pension scheme is 2.64 for Malay, Chinese 2.20 and
Indian 1.77. The findings highlight that most Indian pensioners feel that they
are not receiving enough benefits from the pension scheme. In terms of living
place, all the ethnicities are satisfied and the mean score of health status is
Chinese 3.10, Malay 2.89 and Indian 2.33. It establishes that the health
condition of the Chinese is better than other ethnicities. Pertaining to
bargain shopping, the mean score is Indian 2.29, Malay 2.14 and Chinese 1.90.
The findings indicate that Chinese bargain more when shopping compared to the
other ethnicities. A significant finding is that Indians are more dissatisfied
with their current pension scheme than Malays and Chinese.
For the results based on marital status, the mean score of ability to
saving money is 3.00 for the divorced, married 2.54, widows 2.23 and single
2.18 indicating that only divorced pension holders can save money. For
bargaining while shopping, the mean score for divorced is 2.50, married 2.20,
single 1.88 and widowed 1.85. It shows that the single and widowed group
bargain more while shopping compared to married and divorced cohorts. The mean
for satisfied with current living places is higher than the average of 2.58,
meaning they are happy with current living places. An interesting fact is that
the majority of scores for all items is less than the average mean of 2.58.
The results of satisfaction of pensioners based on income group after
retirement reported that the mean score of receiving adequate benefits from the
current pension system for the income group of RM3001-5000
(US$731.95-US$1219.51) is 3.05; 2.55 for those with incomes between RM1000-3000
(US$241.14-US$731.70); and 2.00 for the income group earning less than RM1000
(US$243.90). The income group earning less than RM1000 (US$243.90) indicates
that they are not satisfied with the current pension systems. The mean score of
satisfaction with the current financial condition for the income group
RM3001-5000 (US$731.95-US$1219.51) is 2.86, 2.58 for RM1000-3000
(US$241.14-US$731.70), and mean score 1.90 for the income group earning less
than RM1000 (US$243.90). Additionally, the mean score of receiving adequate
benefits from the current pension system for the income group of RM3001-5000
(US$731.95-US$1219.51) is 3.15, mean score 2.58 for income group RM1000-3000
(US$241.14-US$731.70), and 2.01 for the income group earning less than RM1000
(US$243.90). The mean score of satisfaction with the current financial
condition for the income group RM3001-5000 (US$731.95-US$1219.51) is 3.10, 2.54
for RM1000-3000 (US$241.14-US$731.70), and 1.97 for the income group earning
less than RM1000 (US$243.90). The mean score of good health status for the
income group RM1000-3000 (US$241.14-US$731.70) is 3.03, 2.85 for income
RM3001-5000 (US$731.95-US$1219.51), and the income group earning less than
RM1000 (US$243.90) acquired the mean of 2.51. The findings highlight that the
health status is good for the income group of RM1000-3000 (US$241.14-US$731.70)
compared to other groups. All of the groups are happier with their current
living places. The findings showed that the lower-earning income group is less
satisfied than those earning more. It can be summarised that financial
assistance can significantly help to improve the QOL of pensioners in Malaysia.
4.3 Level of
satisfaction for QOL of pensioners
Table 4 shows that the average mean score
for QOL is 2.58 (SD.694), indicating the QOL is below the standard of the
public pensioners in Malaysia. The maximum and minimum mean scores value for
QOL are (lowest score 1- highest score 5) 4.33 and 1.33 respectively.
Table 4. The mean of satisfaction
for QOL of pensioners in Malaysia
|
N
|
Valid
|
200
|
|
Missing
|
00
|
|
Mean
|
2.5833
|
|
Standard Deviation
|
0.69472
|
|
Range
|
3.00
|
|
Minimum
|
1.33
|
|
Maximum
|
4.33
|
In Table 5, when we consider the overall
level of QOL in terms of gender identity, approximately 51% female and 27% of
males are highly satisfied. It seems that females are more satisfied than
males. If we do not disaggregate gender, there is no meaningful difference in
the satisfaction levels. However, with the gender-disaggregated analysis, we
find that females have better satisfaction levels than males.
Table 5. Level of satisfaction for
QOL in Malaysia
|
Gender
|
Low
|
Medium
|
High
|
|
Male
|
56 (38.6%)
|
50 (34.50%)
|
39 (26.9%)
|
|
Female
|
12 (21.8%)
|
15 (27.3%)
|
28 (50.9%)
|
|
Total
|
68 (34.0%)
|
65 (32.5%)
|
67 (33.5%)
|
4.4 Relationship of
satisfaction level for QOL based on income and sex
Table 6 shows that the MLR estimates found
that when we considered low-level satisfaction as a reference category, the
odds ratio (exp (B)) of males is 0.714 times likely to be adequately satisfied
where the p-value is 0.438 (P>0.05) with no significance. Moreover, when we
consider low satisfaction as a reference category, we found that the odds ratio
(exp (B)) for males is 0.298 times likely to be more satisfied where the
p-value is 0.003 (P<0.05) with significance. In terms of financial
conditions, there is no significant differences in their satisfaction level,
providing a significant odds ratio (exp (B)) of 0.158 with p-value 0.004
(P<0.05). In summary, there is no significant relationship between income
after retirement and income from pension scheme with the satisfaction level for
QOL among public pensioners in Malaysia. However, in terms of gender, the
satisfaction levels of females are higher than the satisfaction levels of
males.
Table 6. Relationship of
satisfaction level for QOL based on income and sex: Multinomial logistic
regression estimates
|
Satisfaction level for QOL
|
|
B
|
Std. Error
|
Wald
|
Df
|
Sig.
|
Exp (B)
|
|
Medium
|
Intercept
|
.000
|
.707
|
.000
|
1
|
1.000
|
|
|
Monthly pension (RM) less than 1000
|
-.141
|
.746
|
.036
|
1
|
.850
|
.868
|
|
RM1000-3000
|
.074
|
.758
|
.010
|
1
|
.922
|
1.077
|
|
RM3001-5000
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
|
High
|
Intercept
|
1.099
|
.577
|
3.621
|
1
|
.057
|
|
|
Monthly pension (RM) less than 1000
|
-1.846
|
.644
|
8.206
|
1
|
.004
|
.158
|
|
RM1000-3000
|
-.746
|
.632
|
1.395
|
1
|
.238
|
.474
|
|
RM3001-5000
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
|
Medium
|
Intercept
|
.223
|
.671
|
.111
|
1
|
.739
|
|
|
Income after pension (RM) less than 1000
|
-.348
|
.716
|
.237
|
1
|
.627
|
.706
|
|
RM1000-3000
|
-.223
|
.719
|
.096
|
1
|
.756
|
.800
|
|
RM3001 -5000
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
|
High
|
Intercept
|
1.099
|
.577
|
3.621
|
1
|
.057
|
|
|
Income after pension (RM) less than 1000
|
-1.917
|
.655
|
8.557
|
1
|
.003
|
.147
|
|
RM1000-3000
|
-.811
|
.626
|
1.679
|
1
|
.195
|
.444
|
|
RM3001-5000
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
|
Medium
|
Intercept
|
.223
|
.387
|
.332
|
1
|
.565
|
|
|
Male
|
-.336
|
.433
|
.603
|
1
|
.438
|
.714
|
|
Female
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
|
High
|
Intercept
|
.847
|
.345
|
6.030
|
1
|
.014
|
|
|
Male
|
-1.209
|
.403
|
8.994
|
1
|
.003
|
.298
|
|
Female
|
0b
|
.
|
.
|
0
|
.
|
.
|
Furthermore, Table 7 found concerning
recommendations to improve QOL, that 51% of the elderly mentioned that the
government should increase the pension assistance, 21% indicated social safety
nets, 14% introduce pensions in the private sector, 9% free healthcare and the
remaining 7% suggested creating new employment opportunity for the elderly to
generate income.
Table 7. Recommendations for
improving QOL of elderly in Malaysia
|
Recommendations by pensioners to improve QOL
|
N (200)
|
Percent (100)
|
|
Increased amount and benefit of pension assistance
|
101
|
50.5
|
|
Introduce social safety nets for all citizens
|
41
|
20.5
|
|
Provided free healthcare of the elderly by the
government
|
18
|
9.0
|
|
Introduce pension schemes in the private sector
|
27
|
13.5
|
|
Employment opportunity for older for income
generation
|
13
|
6.5
|
5
Discussion
The objective of this study was to examine
the public pension scheme and QOL of the elderly in Malaysia. The results
showed that the highest 40% of the pensioners lived in the terrace house, and
81% took medical support from the government general hospital. The mean score
on the satisfaction level was male 3.28 and female 3.71, whereas the mean score
of adequate benefit from the pension scheme was 2.64 Malay, 2.20 Chinese and
1.77 Indian. According to the living places, the mean score is 3.47 for Malay;
3.40 Chinese; and 3.21 Indian. In terms of health index, the mean score of the
health status of Chinese was 3.10, Malay 2.89 and Indian 2.33. The mean scores
on the ability for savings money were highest among the divorced with 3.00,
2.54 married 2.54, 2.23 widows and 2.18 single. The overall satisfaction level
among the pensioners is 34% low, 34% high and the 33% medium. Finally, 51% of
the pensioners mentioned that the government should increase the amount of
pension assistance.
Results of the study showed that the
average mean score for QOL is 2.58 (SD.694) indicating the QOL is below the
standard expected by the public pensioners in Malaysia. The insecurity of
income among pensioners could be low due to low education, low pay and low
skills with high life expectancy (Yusuf, 2012). This study found that education
level and employment rate, occupation and marital status influence the
socio-economic conditions of the elderly in Malaysia. The education
qualification affects the pension contributions after retirement, with highly
educated people tending to receive higher salaries than increase savings after
retirement (Ju et al., 2017; Yusuf, 2012).
This study revealed that the income of the
elderly was very low, with no significant difference between the income before
and after retirement. The analysis of this study confirms that the mean score
for QOL is 2.58, and income from a pension was not significantly related to QOL
(Ng & Hamid, 2013). Our findings corroborate past findings on the elderly
in Malaysia with low-income earners more vulnerable than higher-income groups
(Lloyd-Sherlock & Agrawal, 2014; Tey et al., 2016). Borg et al. (2008)
established a significant relationship between income and the QOL of the
elderly. The most important sources of social income for the elderly were from
their adult children. However, the extended family system is being changed to a
nuclear family system, certainly distressing and putting tension on the family
as the elderly assuming the role of the caregiver (Hew, 2007; Ng, Lim, Jin,
& Shinfuku, 2005; Selvaratnam & Tin, 2007). Support from children and
income from savings, rental and pensions were often insufficient to meet the
needs of pensioners and maintain their QOL (Tolos, 2012). The life expectancy
is high in Malaysia and higher longevity means that the elderly require higher
levels of savings to maintain their living standards (Yusuf, 2012).
Additionally, the savings do not ensure
the elderly are safe from poverty after retirement (Vaghefi, Kari, & Talib,
2016). The high cost of living and increasing prices of goods, services and
utilities pose a challenge to maintaining QOL in Malaysia. Most people expect
that economic problems can be managed through enhanced pension systems (Samad
& Mansor, 2013).
Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country
comprising three ethnic groups, namely Malays, Chinese and Indians. Based on
ethnicity, the findings highlight that the mean score of adequate benefit from
the pension scheme is 2.64 for Malay, Chinese 2.20 and Indian 1.77. The study
indicated that Indians feel that they are not benefiting enough from their
pensions. Malaysia is facing socio-demographic challenges and changes due to a
rapidly ageing population and the industrial revolution. It may be one of the
reasons that Malaysians are facing challenges. Further, socio-economic factors
and cultural results in different ethnic groupings in terms of rural–urban
distribution and profession (Tey et al., 2016). In terms of health, the mean
score of health status is 3.10 for the Chinese, Malay 2.89 and Indian 2.33. It
established that the health condition of Chinese pensioners is better than
other ethnicities. It could be explained by Chinese being generally more
educated, observe healthier diets, are hardworking, tend to have smaller
families, and observe positive healthcare practices (Tey et al., 2016).
Currently, the elderly are not increasing
only in numbers. They are also experiencing increased rates of Non-Communicable
Diseases (NCD) (Ambigga et al., 2011). The NCD, including diabetes, hypertension,
heart disease, especially among the elderly, is increasing (Anderson &
Phillips, 2006). Currently, one-third to one-fifth of the elderly are facing
heart diseases, diabetes, high blood pressure, and diabetes with high blood
pressure. This finding is consistent with Ambigga et al. (2011), Rechel et al.
(2013), Rowe (2015), and Tey et al. (2017). Mental health problems and visual
impairment and blindness are also prominent among the elderly in Malaysia
(Ambigga et al., 2011; Rechel et al., 2013). The prevalence of depression among
the elderly is also higher (18%) due to financial hardship (Ambigga et al.,
2011). Improved longer life expectancy indicates vulnerability to diseases and
infirmities, resulting in greater healthcare cost and makes caring for the elderly
more challenging. It means that elderly people may suffer from ailments that
require regular treatment (Yahaya et al., 2010). The lack of widespread health
insurance system has caused economic suffering among the elderly who have to
pay excessive healthcare costs. In addition, the elderly might isolate from
relations or neighbours and find it hard to manage complications such as
accidents, disasters and acute diseases. The elderly with health problems and
disabilities typically require dependent living (Yahaya et al., 2010).
Additionally, the expansion of services for the elderly in Malaysian healthcare
is slow despite the need for long-term management of this cohort (Ambigga et
al., 2011). It indicates that the social security system in Malaysia is insufficient
(Masud, Haron, & Gikonyo, 2008). Given the above, while there is a robust
innate judgement that pension schemes should improve the elderly’s health
status, this result is dependent on several factors (Lloyd-Sherlock &
Agrawal, 2014).
Housing is essential for human welfare.
This study concluded that pensioners in Malaysia are highly satisfied with QOL
in terms of housing (Karim, 2012; Ramli et al., 2013). One reason is due to the
Malaysian government’s continuous efforts to ensure that all Malaysians,
especially the low and middle-income groups, have the opportunity to buy houses
by establishing affordable-housing programmes such as Programme Perumahan
Rakyat (people’s housing), Rumah Mampu Milik
(affordable home) and Rumah Mesra Rakyat (friendly homes). These programmes
allow low-income households the opportunity to buy low-cost housing with access
to electricity and water. This finding is consistent with Karim (2012) and
Ramli et al. (2013). Moreover, the satisfaction level of current living places
is higher due to the provision for an early pension to finance the purchase of
housing which has resulted in a greater proportion of Malaysian citizens owning
homes. The provision to withdraw pensions early has had a significant impact on
homeownership, and older Malays have benefitted from rent-free living after
retirement (Doling & Omar, 2012).
The study established that females (51%)
had a significantly higher QOL with a P-value of .003 (P<0.05) compared to
males. For example, it would be interesting to learn more about the gender gap
in terms of satisfaction. This could be because the perception of males for
satisfaction level with a pension was more negative than females (Onunkwor et
al., 2016). Studies indicated lower QOL among males and attributed their
findings to feelings of unpleasantness among elderly males due to low
confidence and negative observations of pensions among the elderly in Malaysia
(Pereira et al., 2006; Vitorino, Paskulin, & Vianna, 2012). This research
generated evidence that the public pension scheme in Malaysia is insufficient
to maintain the QOL. The findings of this study will enhance the development of
the practitioners’ capacity to formulate stronger policies and planning to
improve the QOL for the elderly in Malaysia.
6
Limitations of the study
This study has several limitations. The
first limitation was that the participants were limited to 200 and not
nationally representative, as only public pensioners in Penang were included.
Thus, the findings cannot be implicated to the entire Malaysia. It is crucial
to research diverse perceptions in order to obtain authentic data to guide the
framing of robust policies, legislation, and approaches to cater to the needs
of the elderly in Malaysia. Hence, we encourage others to investigate our
findings to include more diverse and a larger sample size of pensioners in
Malaysia. The second limitation concerns the measurement of the QOL Index.
There is still a lack of consensus among researchers about its definition
reflected in the choice of items for QOL measurement. A common protocol and
fully structured design were not possible for QOL indicators due to lack of
relevant national data and limited resources for research in a developing
country like Malaysia (Skevington, Lotfy, & O’Connell, 2004). Des being the
lack of an agreed definition or standard form of measurement for QOL in
Malaysia, this study used a set of characteristics to measure the QOL which is
consistent with Zhao, Heath and Forgue (2005) and the Western society as the WHO
used the measurements of physical health, psychological health, social
relations and environment (Gou, Xie, Lu, & Khoshbakh, 2018).
7
Conclusions and policy implications
The study provided insightful findings
into the pension scheme in Malaysia. It highlighted several indicators of the
QOL components and provided the current status on those indicators for
pensioners. We acknowledge that this study could not provide sufficient
explanation about the variation of the mean scores on different components
across gender, ethnicity, marital status, age, education level, and other
segregations. We suggest further comparative study that explains these
variations further. Despite these limitations, we believe that this study
explored important issues concerning the living condition, marital status,
ethnicity, income, health facilities and overall satisfaction level of the
services on the QOL Index. The findings will be a useful guideline to
policymakers to formulate policy, particularly to review the retirement age due
to higher longevity and government intervention to enhance elderly care
facilities (Yusuf, 2012; Ali, & Hatta, 2014). Formulating an overarching
policy on social protection, for example, to formulate legislation is essential
to improve the QOL of the elderly. This study offers a useful guideline to
maintain a standard of living of the elderly (Tey et al., 2016).
The findings are also significant for
development practitioners such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) workers
and human rights workers in Malaysia to understand the present status of the
pensioners and their problems. This is imperative for the elderly, particularly
their rights and well-being as key for development practitioners. Moreover,
there is limited evidence in Malaysia about the lives and livelihoods of the
elderly and their QOL.
A growing body of literature indicates
that social work plays a significant role in improving the elderly’s’ lives and
livelihoods (Ali, Hatta, & Azman, 2014). The scope, role and contribution
of social work include improving the elderly’s hazardous conditions and poverty
(Kerr, Gordon, MacDonald, & Stalker, 2005); marital problems, financial
stress, or chronic illness by using QOL scales (Lautar, 2015); assessment of
the needs of elderly, older care planning and counselling for better QOL (Kerr
et al., 2005); the betterment of the elderly’s economical, physical, and
psychological problems (Samad & Mansor, 2013); discrimination and social
exclusion of elderly (Ali & Hatta, 2010); the well-being of the elderly in
Malaysia (Lloyd-Sherlock & Agrawal, 2014); improving their QOL (Ambigga et
al., 2011); and illness and social security schemes (public and private) (Tey
et al., 2016). Finally, the findings of our paper support empowering the
elderly and their caregivers with skills, knowledge and positive attitudes
towards caring for the elderly (Ambigga et al., 2011).
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Author´s
Address:
Isahaque Ali, PhD, PDF,
Social Work Section, School of Social Sciences, Universiti
Sains Malaysia
11800 Penang, Malaysia
+604-653-3369
ialisw@yahoo.com
Author´s
Address:
Azlinda Azman, PhD
Social Work Section, School of Social Sciences, Universiti
Sains Malaysia,
11800 Penang, Malaysia.
+604-653-3369
azlindaa@usm.my
Author´s
Address:
Zulkarnain A. Hatta, DSW
Faculty of Social Science, Arts & Humanities, Lincoln University College
47301, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
+60195715038
zulkarnain@lincoln.edu.my
Author´s
Address:
M. Rezaul Islam, PhD
1000, Bangladesh
+8801763983451
rezauldu@gmail.com
Author´s
Address:
A H M Belayeth Hussain, PhD, PDF
Center for Research on Women & Gender (KANITA), Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Malaysia
+60147454241
belayeth@usm.my
